No. 198, April 2008. * www.greenwych.ca * Greenwich, 306-244-0679 * ISSN 0704-6588

  F A N G  or  F L I N T?   
What Made the "Neanderthal Flute"?
Is this object the earliest known diatonic scale sequence?
 
By Bob Fink

Reply to Iain Morley's paper in Nov/2007 Oxford Journal of Archaeology (OJA)
 
Figure #1: The Neanderthal Flute
 
 
Summary. Palaeontologist Ivan Turk publicly announced in 1997 that a juvenile bear cub femur that he found at the Divje Babe I site, near Idrija in northwestern Slovenia, was a 43,100 year-old "Neanderthal Flute" (see figure 1 above). The bone's four holes appear lined-up, with a possible "thumb hole" on the opposite side. Both ends of the bone are heavily chewed and damaged (Turk 2000).
 
The interpretation of the Divje Babe bone as a human-made flute was soon disputed. The claim in papers by Francesco d'Errico et al (1998); April Nowell and Philip Chase (1998); and re-stated by Iain Morley (2006, 317-333), was that the object's holes were caused by carnivore chewing damage. Those papers challenged the view (Fink 1997) that the hole spacings matched a diatonic scale sequence, among the most widespread scales known.
 
This paper defends the flute interpretation and provides evidence Morley and others ignored.
 
  
OMITTED EVIDENCE I
Length of the Original Bone
 
Morley wrote: "Fink ...observes... four... holes... appear to be spaced so as to reproduce a portion of a diatonic scale (me, fa, so, la); the probability of such a set of hole spacings having occurred by chance is exceedingly small. Whether the holes do reproduce these notes as a portion of a scale depends, though, on the total length of the original bone. Kunej and Turk state that, owing to the young age of the bear cub, the complete bone would not have been long enough to reproduce the length of air column necessary for Fink's ... reconstruction." (Morley 2006, 321)
 
The possibility exists that an extension could have simply been added to the bone (Fink 1997). The scale notes need a bone length of about 37cm to be played exactly in tune to a diatonic sequence.
 
But most important (as can be found in the works Morley cited from me), Morley did not note the letters I published by scholars from museums and zoos and the like (Fink 1997, 22; 2003a, 22). We knew the width of the broken femur. Based on age and/or the usual average width-to-length ratio in cave-bear cubs, all the museums and scholars that responded to my request about the original length of the bone were unanimous about the length. In their letters, the authors all concluded the unbroken Divje Babe femur would've been more than long enough to play the notes in tune. The 1997 letters follow.  
The Age of the juvenile cave bear femur from Divje Babe is under two years or two years old. (Turk et al,  1997, 157; Morley 2006, 319, d'Errico et al 1998, 66.)
 
The length of the bone, on the basis of these opinions and simple verifiable measurements, provides competent evidence contrary to Morley's assumptions about the bone being too short.
 
The Unbreakable Bone
 
Morley quotes a passage from Turk:
 
"Turk et al (1997) established by experiment that fresh bear bone is so elastic that they could puncture holes in it at any point without its smashing as fossil bone does.... In 2001, Turk et al, make far more of the likelihood of the bone cracking, saying it would be difficult to make two holes in a line with each other without the bone cracking longitudinally; however, they go on to say [the bone] cracked in three out of eight experimental piercings, i.e., only 37.5 percent of the time." (Morley, 2006, 324).
 
But writing in Origins of Music, from which Morley did not quote for some reason, Turk reported a different result, saying that all bones cracked:
 
"...compact bone regularly splits longitudinally when a tooth penetrates this deep, as was the case with the holes in the suspected flute.... Strength was measured at the Laboratory of Non-linear Mechanics...using steel points, bronze casts of wolf and hyena dentition, and fresh thigh bones of brown bear. In widening the experimental holes to the size of those on the suspected flute, exerting the same force as for piercing, all juvenile bones cracked. We thank Profs. J Grum and F. Kosel for their help.... The ultimate goal of every bone-eating carnivore is to split a bone into two pieces to get at the marrow. The question is why this goal was not achieved after so many attempts, when most of the necessary energy had been invested in piercing the cortical shell and widening the holes." (Turk and Kunej 2000, 242, 265.)
 
Marrow, Chewing & Attracting Carnivores
  
Proponents of the carnivore-origin pose this argument about marrow:
 
* If you assume the holes were human-made, then marrow is usually removed before making flute holes (Nowell and Chase, 1998, 551-2; Nowell and Chase, 2003, 72; Morley, 2006, 323), not afterward.
 
But then, what explains the chewing? Specifically, Morley wrote the presence of marrow attracted animals to the bone and caused the ensuing chewing damage, which made the holes:
 
"...Chase and Nowell (1998, 550) state that the carnivore damage to the ends of the bone is a 'textbook case' of the damage caused by carnivores when they remove the nutritious cancellous tissue [marrow] from the ends of the bone; since the object would have been non-functional as a flute before the removal of this tissue, this implies that if there is any evidence of human agency on the bone it would have to post-date the damage to the ends of the bone, not pre-date it. Therefore the carnivore activity cannot be said to overlie evidence of human activity in these areas of the bone" (Morley, 2006, 323).
 
Morley further wrote: "As far as Turk et al (1997) are concerned, the damage at the ends of the femur, including the semicircular hole damage...is consistent with carnivore gnawing damage, and is paralleled by several other cave-bear femurs from the site...." (Morley, 2006, 321).
 
But Morley omits dealing at all with what was written by Turk and others about chewing: "We are familiar with examples in which indisputable bone artifacts, such as Upper Paleolithic bone points, were greatly chewed by beasts after people ceased to use them (Turk and Stele 1997: figure 57; Lopez Bayon et al 1997: photo 1)" (Turk and Kunej, 2000, 240, 248).
 
Further, Turk wrote, about the marrow (spongiose) in the Divje Babe bone:
  
"The marrow cavity is basically cleaned of spongiose. The colour of the marrow cavity does not differ from the colour of the external surface of the bone. So we may conclude that the marrow cavity was already open at the time.... Otherwise, it would be a darker colour than the surface of the bone, as we know from coloured marrow cavities of whole limb bones" (Turk et al, 1997, 160).
 
D'Errico too, noted the bone had been empty of marrow (d'Errico et al, 1998, 77).
 
Therefore, if Morley had noted or quoted all the foregoing observations, his conclusions would be severely weakened, regarding his certainty about when the holes were made.
 
OMITTED EVIDENCE II
 
The Odds Against Nature Mimicking a Flute
  
There is further evidence avoided by Morley (and also by d'Errico, Nowell and Chase). For example, Morley avoids any attempt to explain the alignment of the holes, as did d'Errico, et al.
 
Morley, by substituting different words for "holes" (like "perforations" "notches," "damage," "openings," or other such words), therefore concludes that two broken end holes were "almost certainly" never holes and writes there is no further need for any explanation of the alignment of holes nor why two broken end holes were semicircular. But earlier, critics of the flute interpretation indeed had written these end-openings were "four possible holes" or "partial, semicircular holes" or "incomplete holes" [Emphasis added.]  (Nowell and Chase 2003, 70, 71; d'Errico et al 1998, 66,69; d'Errico 2003, 90) and even Morley, too (Morley 2006, 321).
 
Nowell and Chase earlier concluded: "There is little dispute about the observations that have been made on the specimen itself. There are, however, disagreements about the interpretations of these observations" (Nowell and Chase 2003, 72).
 
But as Morley wrote: "The issue of the probability of the holes occurring in line with each other is considerably reduced in magnitude by virtue of the fact that three of the putative five holes were almost certainly never holes" (Morley 2006, 324). Morley then, without explaining why  the end holes were semicircular, concluded: "Since we have only two holes, therefore, the issue of improbability of a chance occurrence of a diatonic scale spacing...becomes a non-issue...human activity need not be invoked to explain these features" (Morley 2006, 323).
 
Nonetheless, regardless of the name assigned to them, the "perforations," or whatever they are called, are still lined-up.
 
Are the Holes Random or Deliberate?
 
Using the letter "O" to represent holes or semi-circular openings in the Divje Babe flute, in figure 2 there is this approximate arrangement of openings in the femur:
 
Figure 2:     O  O   O O
 
Bec ause the holes (or perforations) are not equally spaced, casual observers might think they are randomly arranged, because random or chance measurements are usually unequal and patternless. However, unequal spacings cannot be automatically assumed to be random, because, the holes are also:
 
* Lined-up, four in a row, and also;
* Have similar sized diameters;
* Are all nearly circular (unlike bites which are usually more oval);
* And like a flute, the holes fit the size of fingertips, and exist on a hollow cylindrical bone.
 
 
 Figure 2a:  Perspective version of assumed flute
 
Those four features are not random-looking, and can indicate human design. They do not square with the one feature showing apparently random unequal spacing. On further investigation, that unequal spacing shows a very close match to the unique spacing of flute holes found in a diatonic sequence, do, re, mi & fa (see figure 2), contradicting any initial conclusion of being randomly spaced. Therefore, a test of probability was needed to answer the question: 'How likely is it that particular  sequence can occur due to natural processes?'
 
An invitation came to me to write a rebuttal to d'Errico, Nowell and Chase by the organizers of The Archaeology of Sound conference held in Germany, 2000.   I outlined a probability analysis on whether it was reasonable to believe a flute-like bone, capable of playing a diatonic sequence, was made all by random acts of nature (Fink 2003, 83-87). Nowell, Chase and d'Errico had already concluded a carnivore origin of the object was the most "probable" or "likely" interpretation. (Nowell and Chase 2003, 74; d'Errico et al 1998, 78.)
 
The probability analysis, showing the bone matched the spacing of a known world-wide musical scale sequence, mathematically contradicts those assertions.
 
The probability calculation concluded that seven million or more different random ways exist for four-hole arrangements to appear on any similar length and diameter cylinder as the Divje Babe bone, without  any of them looking like a flute with lined-up holes. By elimination, only a few arrangements remain  that could be flute-like, with a known scale sequence. More detail about this conclusion follows:
 
Without using any complex mathematics, a simplified version of the analysis follows.
 
On a cylinder about the size of the Divje Babe bone, four holes can be made in line. While keeping the four holes still lined-up in a row, if any one or more of the holes' locations is moved left or right by 0.4cm or more, then the four holes, as a set, can accumulate about 680 spacing patterns that do not  signify a musical scale nor anything else known that seems clearly purposeful.  To understand this visually, see the picture of five cylinders (figure 3) showing only five out of all the many ways to make different horizontal arrangements:
 
 
Figure 3: Five non-scale, unsuggestive, inconclusive spacings
 
But only  a few would match other known musical scales or show equally-spaced holes, which suggest a meaningful purpose (Fink 1997, 9).
 
Continuing, if one or more holes is moved up or down  by the same 0.4cm, each such successive move will cause the four holes to noticeably go visually out of their alignment, again as a set,  and no longer seem flute-like.  There are ten or more such locations possible, to place one hole out-of-line around the Divje Babe bone's full diameter.  That's ten ways to be "out of line" just moving only one  hole. Because there are four holes that each could be placed up or down ten different ways, that gives a probability calculation, as follows, using simple multiplication: 10^4 (or ten times itself four times) which equals 10,000 ways for the four holes to not be aligned  like a flute.
 
Concluding the Probability Calculation of Nature Mimicking a Flute
 
Each  of the 680 horizontal  spacings can, therefore, have 10,000 ways to be put vertically out-of-line. (Note:  The first hole was included in the calculation, because on a flute, the unknown mouthpiece structure would represent a specific fixed or a "given" feature in the line-up.)
 
Therefore, the calculation concludes by multiplying the 10,000 by 680, giving 6,800,000 or close to seven million different ways for random arrangements of four holes to appear -- on any similar length and diameter cylinder as is the Divje Babe bone -- without  looking like a flute with lined-up holes.  Figure 4 shows a picture of one possible variant of such non-flute-like random holes:
 
 
Figure 4: Example of bone with four random holes
 
Conversely, the study concludes there is an extreme improbability, and that only a few chances in several million exist that random bites can  line-up in a known and unique scale spacing (Fink 2003, 85).
 
Consider further: What are the chances for nature imitating the other flute-like features besides spacing? There are additional odds against all four holes having similar-sized diameters (as there could be many thousands of combinations of different  diameters if random biting from 4 separate bites of different animals could have taken place). That means there are even fewer chances such a visual result can be caused from four assumed carnivore bites, especially when each hole was separately-made  (Nowell and Chase 1998, 552; d'Errico et al 1998, 76). The calculations provide a realistic order of magnitude: One chance in many millions -- perhaps even billions -- that nature could have mimicked a diatonic flute.
 
CT-SCAN RESULTS AND NEWER OBSERVATIONS
 
Turk published at least two articles about "multi-slice tomography" (CT scan) of the femur (Turk et al  2005, 2006). Turk concluded from the tomography results that there are at least four holes that were human-made.  Not two as Morley claimed. Turk wrote "...at least two (holes) were made prior to the damage to the proximal and distal ends of the diaphysis [the incomplete holes on each end]; and that carnivores could not have made all the holes, but one at the most."  (Turk et al  2006, Abstract.)
 
Turk further concluded: "Conclusions about the origin of the holes therefore cannot be reached only on the basis of the damage.... The holes are very probably artificial, made by the combined use of stone and simple bone tools found at the Divje Babe I site, ..."  (Turk et al  2006, abstract).
 
Elsewhere, Turk notes: "The four holes were created first, and only subsequently the majority of the damage, which can be ascribed to carnivores. We even succeeded in establishing a more exact succession of events at the two ends of the diaphysis and the distal metaphysis..."  (Turk et al  2006, 34). That finding was not addressed by Morley.
 
Also the CT scan further confirmed the absence of marrow (Turk et al  2005, 34)
 
"On the basis of the results of in-depth research of recent years, the origin of the holes on the 'flute' can no longer be in doubt. We believe we have demonstrated sufficiently clearly that it is actually an exceptional find, the oldest flute-like artefact, and that sooner or later, it will be necessary for Paleolithic archaeology to be reconciled with this."  (Turk et al  2005, 36.)
 
Morley ignores virtually all the CT scan findings.
 
MISLEADING STATEMENTS
 
D'Errico et al, wrote: "...holes of the same size, shape and number...occur on cave bear limb bones from cave bear bone accumulations with no human occupation, and that a number of features described as human-made by the discoverers should more likely be interpreted as the result of carnivore damage" (d'Errico 2003, 89), and wrote: "The presence of two or possibly three perforations on the suggested flute cannot therefore be considered as evidence of human manufacture, as this is a common feature in the studied sample." (D'Errico 2003, 90).
 
Both Turk and I noted the same inaccurate quote above ("this is a common feature") from d'Errico. Turk wrote that statement is "inaccurate and tendentious. D'Errico et al do not quote [the source] and do not explain how they managed to see the sample. Perhaps because there is no example of a perforated diaphyse, let alone perforated so many times...which is comparable with the femur of Divje Babe I."  (Turk et al 2005, 35.) [Emphasis added] (Also see Fink 2003a, August 2003 update )
 
D'Errico's earlier words ("...same size, shape and number..." above ) are equally misleading.
Morley verified this somewhat: "Whilst the collections of cave bear bones examined by d'Errico et al, as well as those discussed by Turk et al, do show similar shaped and damaged holes...none of these occur in the diaphysis [thick portion] of a femur [as are found on the disputed flute]" (Morley 2006, 329)
 
BROADER IMPLICATIONS, IF THE BONE IS A FLUTE
 
Music Archaeology & Music Origins
 
If history records the object as a flute, it would be the world's oldest known musical instrument and earliest example exhibiting spacings of a diatonic ("do, re, mi, fa") sequence of holes, as is found in other disparate times and places. It would also tell a great deal about the origins of the pentatonic and diatonic scales -- and of music itself.
 
Finding (among bones which could not possibly be human-made) a few chewed individual holes similar to the holes in Divje Babe is the focus underlying conclusions by Morley et al.   It is important to test that evidence within a much broader context or focus. A bone which can 'by chance' match and play an aligned diatonic spacing sequence surely demands more explanation than silence.
 
The number of significant archaeological finds like Divje Babe's has grown over twenty or thirty years. They challenge some time-worn assumptions about music history largely still taught and believed. Namely, long-held ideas that there are no "naturally" inspired scales; no overall human "evolution" of music, and that harmony is relatively recent and "Western" in music history (Kilmer et al, 1976, 14).
 
These are the more recent major archaeological music finds:
  
Figure 5: Matchup between a modern minor scale and the Divje Babe femur.
That spacing match-up is almost like finding a fingerprint match.
 
What Forces Dictate the Unique Hole Spacings as Found in the Divje Babe Femur?
 
Answers to that question reveal this bone's potential impact in support of certain views about the origins of music and of widely found scales. A unique spacing pattern between aligned holes which initially appears to be meaningless, but isn't necessarily so, surely must have some explanation dictating its frequent, increasing appearance in other various periods, cultures and places.
 
Of course, we know many other scales and spacings exist on ancient flutes, most notably equal spacings (based on finger-width, or a simple penchant for orderliness). But spacings which are not equal, are more often diatonic (or pentatonic), or at least appear to often settle upon a five or seven note scale. This flute-like object from Divje Babe, which being nearly 50,000 yrs old, strongly suggests some underlying physiological impulse at work rather than vast coincidence.
 
Hans Hickmann wrote:
 
"Primitive polyphony for two or three voices, with the Assyrians as well as with the Egyptians of Pharaonic times since the third millennium B.C., is unquestionably based on intervals of fourth, fifth and octave [or Do]. Besides, these intervals have assumed a major role in the tuning and play of certain musical instruments. This has been observed from study and measurement of wind instruments in good state of preservation...." (Hickmann 1960, 103).
 
The fundamental physiological impulses at work regarding these intervals are simple acoustics, and, when applied to music origins, turn out to be illuminating, but quite simple (Fink 2003a, 2-10).
 
To explain: Any note in nature has overtones. Overtones are noticeable usually as a different quality  of sound (e.g., as a "single" pitch on a piano, or on a trumpet, etc). So that single  note's individual overtones are audible, but heard sub-rosa, not like a chord of several separate tones -- just as the mix of red and yellow are seen not separately, but as a single colour: orange.
 
The most audible overtones belonging to the three most nearly universal intervals found across time -- the most used tones heard in almost all cultures -- namely, a tone's octave, fourth and fifth (or the notes Do, Fa, and Sol) -- likely inspired an evolution into the most widespread of scales as follows:  
 All the above are the likeliest responses to overtones by the human ear over time, and those general responses are indeed demonstrated throughout music history and various cultures. (Fink 2003a, 2-10)
 
Furthermore: Definitions of notes, known as the tonic, dominant or subdominant (a "trio" of the three starting tones Do, Fa and Sol), evolve because the average strengths of the audible overtones are unequal, those three being much more audible than the others in the scales. The average audibility of those overtones determines, over historic time, the role and power of each note in a scale that originated from those overtones This in turn creates tonality (defined as a "sense of key" or "loyalty to a fundamental tonic" or "keynote"); which creates tonal scales (such as the pentatonic, and especially the diatonic) and a sense of "middle" and "end" to a melody, or to any series of notes or harmonies.
 
In addition, the chords in history generally harmonizing almost all notes of a melody (where harmony exists at all) are those based on the same trio  of intervals (tonic, fourth and fifth). Such tonality and harmonic systems were accomplished by musicians long before anyone was aware of acoustic science).
 
Thus those influences from the presence of those overtones, depending how many of the audible overtones are chosen to be added to the scale or tuned into it, are the forces, more likely than random chance, that brought into being the bone from Divje Babe, and over time, led to the most widespread scales known today, the pentatonic, the diatonic major-minor system; and their sense of mode, or key or tonality.
 
CONCLUSIONS
 
The lined-up spacings of holes on the Divje Babe femur is among real evidence which shows that it was a 'human carnivore' which did the 'biting' of holes. As seen, that evidence is fallaciously dismissed by Morley, d'Errico et al, Nowell and Chase. The dismissal is largely based in their calling the two end holes not "holes," but carnivore "perforations" or "notches" and other euphemistic terms.
 
Does that semantic sidestep prevent these holes from looking, being, or acting like real "holes"? That approach, to try to redefine the object as having only two holes, can't absolve us from the need to explain the line-up of the earlier admitted "four possible holes" (Nowell and Chase 2003, 70), nor to explain most of the other flute-like features.
 
As noted, Morley used his interpretation (namely, that the two end-holes were "never holes"), and wrote that there is therefore no longer a "line-up" needing any explanation (Morley 2006, 324). This means this interpretation or conclusion is now used as factual evidence, or as if it was an observation. This approach reverses the usual practice of using evidence to form conclusions or interpretations. Instead it uses conclusions to replace observations, or avoid noting observations, possibilities or evidence.
 
But even if semi-circular portions of two punctures on the ends of the broken femur are not called "holes," there is no difference or change which that can possibly make in their visual appearance and alignment. Whatever they are called, they are still aligned.  
 
But, if we instead conclude, from observing that scale-like alignment, that the alignment is evidence that the semi-circular "perforations" or "notches" (or whatever they're called), were at least possibly if not likely complete holes before the ends were broken and chewed -- that would restore the proper logical direction of going from observation, or from evidence, to conclusions.
 
This object looks like a flute -- Again: Four apparent holes in-line; with similar-sized diameters; matching the unique spacing of a diatonic scale sequence; with a bore-to-hole diameter ratio that is flute-like; and other flute-like features.
 
Those observations are true taphonomic evidence, just as the spacings of the holes, if any two of them had matched the tooth-span of any carnivore (which none did match), would have likewise been considered bona fide evidence  indicating a carnivore(s) made the holes. But a spacing that matches a known musical scale  remains summarily dismissed as not being "evidence" -- frankly, because it would be evidence not convenient to a pre-ordained conclusion.
 
The chances those features being naturally caused are so improbable, they trump the inconclusive taphonomic evidence which experienced taphonomists still dispute. Especially on a bone that has weathered beyond 43,000 years. (Turk et al, 2006.)
 
Certainly, some of the bone's individual features and holes, seen separately from the whole evidence, exhibit very possible carnivore intervention. But that approach will miss seeing the 'forest' because it sees only some individual  trees.
 
Note this simple analogy to place the probability notion in a more familiar reality: Suppose a reader is shown a bone, and on it are clearly scratched marks that look like the letter "F" -- and also, the letters L, U, T, and E. And these are lined up, like a word.
 
One could visit inside a cave known to be frequented only by carnivores (as did d'Errico for his 1998 Antiquity article's evidence) and one might inevitably find some bones which have clear scratches that would look like any one of the letters of the alphabet. Like an F or an E, etc., on any given bone. But what no one will find is all the letters lined-up on one bone, virtually equal in height, and matching the spelling of a real, known word (or, by this analogy, spelling out or matching a real, widely found musical scale sequence).
 
And that's the fatal flaw in the critics' arguments: It wasn't realized the odds would be so great against that alignment being "accidental" that one ends up by seriously unmathematically claiming a carnivore explanation was the "more probable" or "most likely" explanation (Nowell et al, 2003, 74; d'Errico et al, 1998, 78).
 
Morley et al  say nature built a sophisticated flute with no human help and the scale-like line-up of holes, all nearly equal in diameter, no longer need explaining. Their arguments miss the "whole" for overly concentrating on the look of a single hole, like in The Emperor's New Clothes  fable -- wherein the crowd did not want to offend the emperor and so pretended not to see the 'naked truth' (that the emperor was plainly naked with no new clothes on at all).
 
Far more likely is that the object is a flute, and is the earliest known example of a diatonic scale sequence, containing again, that virtually universal trio of tones: unison, a fifth and a fourth.
 
================ R E F E R E N C E S ===============
 
April Nowell and Philip G. Chase, 2003. "Is a cave bear bone from Divje Babe, Slovenia, a Neanderthal flute? The Divje Babe specimen and the diatonic scale" in Studies in Music Archaeology III, pp.69-81.
 
April Nowell and Philip G. Chase, 1998. "Taphonomy of a Suggested Middle Paleolithic Bone Flute from Slovenia." in Current Anthropology, Aug-Oct., Vol 39, #4, pp 549-553
 
Boylan, Patrick, 1997, in Museum-L Archives: See: http://home.ease.lsoft.com/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind9707B&L=MUSEUM-L&F=&S=&P=47003  Retrieved April 2, 2007.
 
D'Errico, Francesco, et al, 1998. "A Middle Palaeolithic origin of music?" in Antiquity journal, March, pp.65-78.
 
D'Errcio, Francesco, 2003. "Just a Bone or a flute?" in Studies in Music Archaeology III, Eichmann, Hickmann, Kilmer, eds., Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH., Rahden/Westf. Germany, pp 89-90.
 
Fink, Bob (aka Robert Fink): 1997. The Neanderthal Flute, Greenwich, Canada. (See also: http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm)
 
Fink, Robert, 2003. "The Neanderthal Flute and the Origins of the Scale -- Fang or Flint -- a Response," in Studies in Music Archaeology III, Eichmann, Hickmann, Kilmer, eds., Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH., Rahden/Westf. Germany, pp. 83-87.
 
Fink, Bob, 2003a. On the Origin of Music, Greenwich, Canada.
 
Hickmann, Hans: 1960, "Presence de la constante de quarte, de quinte et dans octave et son role structurel dans la antiquity pre-hellenistique" ("Presence of the Constant of the Fourth, Fifth and Octave -- Its Structural Role in Pre-Hellenic Antiquity"), in: La resonance dans les Echelles musicales, Paris, 9-14. Mai 1960, Paris 1963. (Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Sciences humaines), 103-122.
 
Kilmer, Crocker, Brown eds., 1976. Sounds from Silence, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley.
 
Morley, Iain: 2006. "Mousterian Musicianship?" in Oxford Journal of Archaeology, November, Vol. 25 #4, pp. 317-333.
 
Turk, Ivan, ed., 1997, Mousterienska Koscena Piscal in druge najdbe iz Divjih Bab I v Sloveniji (Mousterian Bone Flute and Other Finds from Divje Babe I Cave Site in Slovenia), Znanstvenoraziskovalni Center Sazu, Ljubljana.
 
Turk, Ivan and Kunej, Drago, 2000. "New Perspectives on the Beginnings of Music: Archaeological and Musicological Analysis of a Middle Paleolithic Bone 'Flute' " in The Origins of Music, Wallin, Merker and Brown, eds.: MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass; London, U, .pp. 235-268.
 
Turk, Ivan, Miran Pflaum, and Dean Pekarovic. 2005. "Rezultati racunalniske tomografije najstarejse domnevne piscali iz Divjih bab I (Slovenija): prispevek k teoriji luknjanja kost," "Results of Computer Tomography of the Oldest Suspected Flute from Divje Babe I (Slovenia): Contribution to the Theory of Making Holes in Bones" (English and Slovenian). in Arheoloski Vestnik: Acta Archaeologica -- Ljubljana: Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, Sekcija za arheologijo Vol. 56, 9-36.
 
Turk, Ivan, Bonnie A.B. Blackwell, Janus Turk, Miran Pflaum: 2006. "Results of Computer Tomography of the oldest Suspected Flute from Divje Babe I (Slovenia)." in L'Anthropologie. Vol. 110 (3), Publi_ par Elsevier Masson SAS.
 
Xiao Xinghua, 2003. "On the Musical Civilization of the Neolithic Age in China as Illustrated by the Ancient Bone Flutes (from 9,000 to 7,800 years ago) Unearthed at Jiahu, Henan Province," in Studies in Music Archaeology III, Eichmann, Hickmann, Kilmer, eds., Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH., Rahden/Westf. Germany, pp. 161-167. (See also: http://www.greenwych.ca/9ooo-1.htm#Update Retrieved April 13,2007)
 
[E-mail: ivylab at shaw.ca, or green at link.ca -- All art & illus: Bob Fink (c) 2007, Greenwich.]
GREENWICH/CROSSCURRENTS
1829 Arlington Ave., Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan,
Canada S7H 2Y9
TEL# (306) 244-0679 or 931-2189
 
 
=====================================